Please forgive the slight inconvenience in creating a new account. Due to juvenile delinquents spamming garbage to the site, we had to install a "Captcha", which can differentiate a spam bot from a human. Once you open your account, confirm it by returning the email, and identifying yourself, we will give you edit privileges. Just request them by leaving a message at click here.
Dietary Reference Intake
The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) is a system of nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences. The DRI system is used by both the United States and Canada and is intended for the general public and health professionals. Applications include:
- Composition of diets for schools, prisons, hospitals or nursing homes
- Industries developing new food stuffs
- Healthcare policy makers and public health officials
The DRI was introduced in 1997 in order to broaden the existing guidelines known as Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs). The DRI values are not currently used in nutrition labeling, where the older Reference Daily Intakes are still used.
Contents
History
The Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) was developed during World War II by Lydia J. Roberts, Hazel Stiebeling, and Helen S. Mitchell, all part of a committee established by the United States National Academy of Sciences in order to investigate issues of nutrition that might "affect national defense" (Nestle, 35).[1] The committee was renamed the Food and Nutrition Board in 1941, after which they began to deliberate on a set of recommendations of a standard daily allowance for each type of nutrient. The standards would be used for nutrition recommendations for the armed forces, for civilians, and for overseas population who might need food relief. Roberts, Stiebeling, and Mitchell surveyed all available data, created a tentative set of allowances for "energy and eight nutrients", and submitted them to experts for review (Nestle, 35). The final set of guidelines, called RDAs for Recommended Dietary Allowances, were accepted in 1941. The allowances were meant to provide superior nutrition for civilians and military personnel, so they included a "margin of safety." Because of food rationing during the war, the food guides created by government agencies to direct citizens' nutritional intake also took food availability into account.
The Food and Nutrition Board subsequently revised the RDAs every five to ten years. In the early 1950s, United States Department of Agriculture nutritionists made a new set of guidelines that also included the number of servings of each food group in order to make it easier for people to receive their RDAs of each nutrient.
Current recommendations
The current Dietary Reference Intake recommendation is composed of:[2]
- Estimated Average Requirements (EAR), expected to satisfy the needs of 50% of the people in that age group based on a review of the scientific literature.
- Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), the daily dietary intake level of a nutrient considered sufficient by the Food and Nutrition Board to meet the requirements of 97.5% of healthy individuals in each life-stage and sex group. It is calculated based on the EAR and is usually approximately 20% higher than the EAR (See Calculating the RDA).
- Adequate Intake (AI), where no RDA has been established, but the amount established is somewhat less firmly believed to be adequate for everyone in the demographic group.
- Tolerable upper intake levels (UL), to caution against excessive intake of nutrients (like vitamin A) that can be harmful in large amounts. This is the highest level of daily consumption that current data have shown to cause no side effects in humans when used indefinitely without medical supervision.
The RDA is used to determine the Recommended Daily Value (RDV) which is printed on food labels in the U.S. and Canada.
Vitamins and minerals
EARs, RDA/AIs and ULs for an average healthy 44-year old male are shown below. EARs shown as "NE" have not yet been established or not yet evaluated. ULs shown as "ND" could not be determined, and it is recommended that intake from these nutrients be from food only, to prevent adverse effects. Amounts and "ND" status for other age and gender groups, pregnant women, lactating women, and breastfeeding infants may be much different.[3]
| Nutrient | EAR | RDA/AI | UL[4] | Unit | Top Sources in Common Measures, USDA[5] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamin A | 625 | 900 | 3000 | µg | carrots, turkey, pumpkin, egg yolk, liver |
| Vitamin C | 75 | 90 | 2000 | mg | oranges, grapefruits, peaches, kiwifruit, bell peppers |
| Vitamin D[6] | 10 | 15 | 100 | µg | fortified cereals, mushrooms, yeast, sockeye salmon, swordfish, rainbow trout, sardines, cod liver oil (also fortified foods and beverages) |
| Vitamin K | NE | 120 | ND | µg | kale, collards, spinach, yellow split peas, white beans, green peas |
| Vitamin B6 | 1.1 | 1.3 | 100 | mg | fortified cereals, chickpeas, sockeye salmon |
| α-tocopherol (Vitamin E) | 12 | 15 | 1000 | mg | fortified cereals, tomato paste, sunflower seeds |
| Biotin (B7) | NE | 30 | ND | µg | whole grains, almonds, peanuts, beef liver, egg yolk, salmon[7] |
| Calcium[6] | 800 | 1000 | 2500 | mg | fortified cereals, collards, almonds, condensed cow's milk, cheese, figs, orange juice |
| Chloride | NE | 2300 | 3600 | mg | table salt |
| Chromium | NE | 35 | ND | µg | broccoli, turkey ham, grape juice[8] |
| Choline | NE | 550 | 3500 | mg | egg yolk, meats, lecithin, broccoli, beef liver, condensed milk |
| Copper | 700 | 900 | 10000 | µg | sunflower seeds, oysters, lobster, cashews, dark chocolate |
| Cyanocobalamin (B12) | 2.0 | 2.4 | ND | µg | fortified cereals, turkey, clams, beef, egg yolk, sardines, tuna fish |
| Fluoride | NE | 4 | 10 | mg | public drinking water, where fluoridation is performed or natural fluorides are present |
| Folate (B9) | 320 | 400 | 1000 | µg | leafy greens, enriched white rice, fortified cereals, enriched cornmeal |
| Iodine | 95 | 150 | 1100 | µg | iodized salt, kelp, cod |
| Iron | 6 | 8 | 45 | mg | fortified cereals, turkey, walnuts, dark chocolate |
| Magnesium | 330 | 400 | 350a | mg | buckwheat flour, rolled oats, spinach, almonds, dark chocolate |
| Manganese | NE | 2.3 | 11 | mg | oat bran, whole grain wheat flour, bulgur, rolled oats, brown rice, dark chocolate |
| Molybdenum | 34 | 45 | 2000 | µg | legumes, grain products, green peas, nuts and seeds[9] |
| Niacin (B3) | 12 | 16 | 35 | mg | fortified cereals, yellowfin tuna, sockeye salmon, chicken meat |
| Pantothenic acid (B5) | NE | 5 | ND | mg | fortified cereals, beef liver, shiitake mushrooms |
| Phosphorus | 580 | 700 | 4000 | mg | cornmeal, condensed milk, wheat flour, rolled oats, brown rice, bulgur, milk |
| Potassium | NE | 4700 | ND | mg | potatoes, bananas, tomato paste, tomatoes, orange juice, beet greens, quinoa, rolled oats, bulgur, beans, peas, cashews, pistachio nuts |
| Riboflavin (B2) | 1.1 | 1.3 | ND | mg | almonds, sesame seeds, spaghetti, beef liver, turkey |
| Selenium | 45 | 55 | 400 | µg | Brazil nuts, rockfish, yellowfin tuna, beef, sardines, salmon, egg yolk |
| Sodium | NE | 1500 | 2300 | mg | onion soup mix, miso, table salt, egg whites |
| Thiamin (B1) | 1.0 | 1.2 | ND | mg | fortified cereals, enriched wheat flour, breadcrumbs |
| Zinc | 9.4 | 11 | 40 | mg | nuts, oysters, fortified cereals, beef, baked beans |
EAR: Estimated Average Requirements; RDA: Recommended Dietary Allowances; AI: Adequate Intake; UL: Tolerable upper intake levels.
- a The UL for magnesium represents extra intake from dietary supplements. High doses of magnesium from dietary supplements or medications often result in diarrhea that can be accompanied by nausea and abdominal cramping.[10] There is no evidence of adverse effects from the consumption of naturally occurring magnesium in foods.
It is also recommended that the following substances not be added to food or dietary supplements. Research has been conducted into adverse effects, but was not conclusive in many cases:
| Substance | RDA/AI | UL | units per day |
|---|---|---|---|
| Arsenic | — | ND | — |
| Silicon | — | ND | — |
| Vanadium | — | 1.8 | mg |
Macronutrients
RDA/AI is shown below for males and females aged 40–50 years.[3]
| Substance | Amount (males) | Amount (females) | Top Sources in Common Measures[5] |
|---|---|---|---|
| Waterb | 3.7 L/day | 2.7 L/day | water, watermelon, iceberg lettuce |
| Carbohydrates | 130 g/day | 130 g/day | milk, grains, fruits, vegetables |
| Proteinc | 56 g/day | 46 g/day | meats, fish, legumes (pulses and lentils), nuts, milk, cheeses, eggs |
| Fiber | 38 g/day | 25 g/day | barley, bulgur, rolled oats, legumes, nuts, beans, apples, |
| Fat | 20–35% of calories | oils, butter, lard, nuts, seeds, fatty meat cuts, egg yolk, cheeses | |
| Linoleic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid (polyunsaturated) | 17 g/day | 12 g/day | sunflower seeds, sunflower oil, safflower oil, |
| alpha-Linolenic acid, an omega-3 fatty acid (polyunsaturated) | 1.6 g/day | 1.1 g/day | Linseed oil (Flax seed), salmon, sardines |
| Cholesterol | 300 milligrams(mg)[11] | chicken giblets, turkey giblets, beef liver, egg yolk | |
| Trans fatty acids | As low as possible | ||
| Saturated fatty acids | As low as possible while consuming a nutritionally adequate diet [12] | coconut meat, coconut oil, lard, cheeses, butter, chocolate, egg yolk | |
| Added sugar | No more than 25% of calories | foods that taste sweet but are not found in nature, like: sweets, cookies, cakes, jams, energy drinks, soda drinks, many processed foods, | |
- b Includes water from food, beverages, and drinking water.
- c Based on 0.8 g/kg of body weight
Calculating the RDA
The equations used to calculate the RDA are as follows:
"If the standard deviation (SD) of the EAR is available and the requirement for the nutrient is symmetrically distributed, the RDA is set at two SDs above the EAR:
<math>RDA = EAR + 2SD(EAR)</math>
If data about variability in requirements are insufficient to calculate an SD, a coefficient of variation (CV) for the EAR of 10 percent is assumed, unless available data indicate a greater variation in requirements. If 10 percent is assumed to be the CV, then twice that amount when added to the EAR is defined as equal to the RDA. The resulting equation for the RDA is then
<math>RDA = 1.2EAR</math>
This level of intake statistically represents 97.5 percent of the requirements of the population."[13]
Recent developments
In September 2007, the Institute of Medicine held a workshop entitled “The Development of DRIs 1994–2004: Lessons Learned and New Challenges.”[14] At that meeting, several speakers stated that the current Dietary Recommended Intakes (DRI’s) were largely based upon the very lowest rank in the quality of evidence pyramid, that is, opinion, rather than the highest level – randomized controlled clinical trials. Speakers called for a higher standard of evidence to be utilized when making dietary recommendations.
See also
- Healthy diet
- Acceptable daily intake — upper limit on intake (United Kingdom)
- Dietary Reference Values — recommended dietary requirements (United Kingdom)
References
- ↑ Harper AE (November 2003). "Contributions of women scientists in the U.S. to the development of Recommended Dietary Allowances". J. Nutr. 133 (11): 3698–702. PMID 14608098. http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/133/11/3698.
- ↑ "A Consumer's Guide to the DRIs (Dietary Reference Intakes)". Health Canada. 2010-11-29. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/reference/cons_info-guide_cons-eng.php. Retrieved 2012-08-17.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Recommended Intakes for Individuals, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies, 2004, http://www.iom.edu/Global/News%20Announcements/~/media/Files/Activity%20Files/Nutrition/DRIs/DRI_Summary_Listing.pdf, retrieved 2009-06-09
- ↑ Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs): Tolerable Upper Intake Levels, Vitamins., Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academies, 1997
- ↑ 5.0 5.1 USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, SR23, 2010
- ↑ 6.0 6.1 Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D. Washington DC: National Academy Press. 2011. ISBN 0-309-16394-3. http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13050. [..., The IOM finds that the evidence supports a role for vitamin D and calcium in bone health but not in other health conditions. Further, emerging evidence indicates that too much of these nutrients may be harmful, challenging the concept that “more is better Lay summary].
- ↑ "Biotin". Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University. http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/biotin/.
- ↑ "Chromium". Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University. http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/chromium/.
- ↑ "Molybdenum". Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University. http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/minerals/molybdenum/.
- ↑ http://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Magnesium-HealthProfessional/
- ↑ "14. Appendix F: Calculate the Percent Daily Value for the Appropriate Nutrients". Guidance for Industry: A Food Labeling Guide. Office of Nutrition, Labeling, and Dietary Supplements, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. October 2009. http://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/GuidanceDocuments/FoodLabelingNutrition/FoodLabelingGuide/ucm064928.htm.
- ↑ "http://www.iom.edu/Global/News%20Announcements/~/media/Files/Activity%20Files/Nutrition/DRIs/DRI_Summary_Listing.pdf"
- ↑ Panel on Micronutrients 2001
- ↑ The Development of DRIs 1994–2004: Lessons Learned and New Challenges. Workshop Summary, November 30, 2007
Further reading
- Nestle, Marion (2002). Food Politics. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22465-5.
- Panel on Micronutrients, Subcommittees on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients and of Interpretation and Use of Dietary Reference Intakes, and the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes (2001). Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington DC: National Academy Press. ISBN 0-309-07279-4. http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=10026.
External links
- US Government Food and Nutrition Information Center list of Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI) and Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA, the deprecated nutritional recommendations)
- USDA RDA chart (PDF file)
- USDA Dietary Reference Intakes (DRI)
- Article comparing recommended amounts of vitamins and minerals in different countries from the European Union (PDF file)
- Differences in RDA set by medical authorities in the UK, the European Union and the USA.
